Page - 34 - in Cyborg Mind - What Brain–Computer and Mind–Cyberspace Interfaces Mean for Cyberneuroethics

34 • Cyborg Mind experiences. The change can also be dramatic. For example, brain injury where entire areas of the brain no longer function can restrict certain abili- ties, although after some time, these may begin to return as other areas of the brain seek to compensate. As such, the structure–function relationship can be seen as both necessary and plastic. Function of the Brain In 1824 the French physiologist Jean-Pierre Flourens (1794–1867) published the results of a series of experiments in which he removed certain portions of pigeons’ brains to see what happened.6 He found that removing a specific part destroyed the sense of will, judgement and perception of the birds, and that removing another part took away the animal’s muscular coordination and its sense of balance. Finally, taking out a third part of the brain, which seemed to contain the cardiac, respiratory and vomiting centres, killed the birds. On the other hand, Flourens was unable (probably because his experi- mental subjects had relatively primitive brains) to find specific regions for memory and cognition, which led him to believe that they were present in a diffuse form around the brain. This meant that different functions could generally be ascribed to particular regions of the brain, but that a finer locali- sation was not possible. Neuroscientists can now examine the brain in many different ways. For instance, they can study the neurons themselves as the basic building blocks of brain function by examining the detailed biology of these neurons and how the transmission of information takes place. But researchers can also study the brain at a more general level by investigating the way in which neurons form circuits and networks of communication through electrical and chemical signalling, or even examine a certain activity as it takes place in a whole region of the brain. This last approach can vary from a detailed analysis of a simple memory circuit to broader influences on the function of a human brain using more advanced measuring devices in a conscious human being. Alternatively, instead of examining the brain itself as a biological entity, it is possible to concentrate on the cognitive, social and behavioural consequences of brain function. At present, most neuroscientists believe that it is necessary to combine these molecular, cellular and circuitry systems all together with cognitive approaches, while seeking to understand human behaviour and social interaction in order to obtain a more general understanding of brain function.7 The different parts of the brain include the following. This open access edition has been made available under a CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license thanks to the support of Knowledge Unlatched. Not for resale.