Page - 72 - in Cyborg Mind - What Brain–Computer and Mind–Cyberspace Interfaces Mean for Cyberneuroethics

72 • Cyborg Mind In addition, experiments that took place in the 1960s and early 1970s in nonhuman primates demonstrated that the activity of neurons within a spe- cific area of the brain could be directly correlated to specific aspects of move- ment. This was then used to enable these primates to learn feedback control of neuronal activity without actually having to move their bodies. Interesting, basic brain patterns seem to be similar whether movement is imagined or performed, which is a useful feature in seeking to harness brain activity to operate artificial devices.109 Moreover, since the human brain of a person can process images even before he or she may be aware of them, this could be very valuable in providing significant advantages over other systems of control in terms of speed and accuracy.110 The potential practical applications of feedback systems are already assist- ing, repairing or enhancing motor functions in many paralysed patients. Moreover, since many who have suffered some injury, such as a stroke or an amputation, retain some brain functions to generate movement intentions, these can be used to control the new limb or device or even any muscles that are still functioning. This is possible because the patient gets an idea of how well he or she is doing through the feedback mechanism. In some advanced systems, both the computer and the person ‘learn’ how to work together in a sort of symbiotic process.111 For example, it may be possible for a neuronal interface to analyse certain brain signals that are associated with movement (which are generally consciously invoked, but may also be passively produced) and translate them into information that can be used to control a device in real time in a manner that reflects the intention of the person.112 Such feedback mechanisms enable researchers to also explore the pro- cess of learning in the human brain in the context of short-term and long- term improvements. In this regard, a very positive achievement would be for a patient with severe paralysis to regain control, communication and independence.113 In 2016, it was announced that three volunteers in Italy with very sever spinal injuries were able to take control of a robot in Japan through the use of EEG and a head-mounted display that showed what the robot was seeing. In order to move the robot in real time, the volunteers concentrated on special parts of the display. Moreover, to increase the feeling of control over (and embodiment in) the robot, they were provided with auditory feedback.114 These experiments were undertaken in the context of the European Union- supported Virtual Embodiment and Robotic Re-Embodiment Project. This aims to break down the boundary between the human and a surrogate body existing either in immersive virtual reality or in ‘real’ physical reality, such as with a robot body. An illusion is then created in individuals that their This open access edition has been made available under a CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license thanks to the support of Knowledge Unlatched. Not for resale.