Page - 75 - in Cyborg Mind - What Brain–Computer and Mind–Cyberspace Interfaces Mean for Cyberneuroethics

Neuronal Interface Systems • 75 could be heard, was a real challenge. Furthermore, even actions as simple as standing require the coordination of many muscles from those controlling the person’s toes to those regulating movement in the legs. This means that taking a computer-controlled approach to making a person walk will require tens if not hundreds of connections. However, in 2016, Swiss scientists indicated that they had been able to treat Rhesus monkeys with spinal cord injuries using a wireless neuropros- thetic interface. This acted as a new bridge between their brains and their spines so that they could regain some control over their legs.126 More generally, though, researchers have experienced greater success in functional electrical stimulation when electrodes were strapped to an indi- vidual’s skin directly over key muscles and a current was passed through the electrodes, making these muscles contract. With correct placement of the electrodes and an appropriate pattern of stimulation, it is suggested that individuals with spinal damage may begin to walk in the future.127 Synthetic Cerebellums In 2011, scientists in Israel indicated that they were able to create a synthetic cerebellum that helps coordinate movements and was able to restore lost brain function in a rat. To do this, the researchers used a chip sitting outside the skull, which was wired into the brain using electrodes. A computer then interpreted input signals and sent a response to a different part of the brain- stem (which channels neuronal information from the rest of the body) that initiated motor neurons to implement a certain movement.128 In order to check the device, the scientists anaesthetised a rat and disabled its cerebellum before connecting their synthetic version. They then sought to teach the animal a conditioned motor reflex  – a blink  – by associating a certain noise with a puff of air on the eye, until the animal blinked on hear- ing the noise by itself. The scientists then tried this without the chip con- nected and found that the rat was unable to learn the motor reflex. However, once the artificial cerebellum was reconnected, the rat behaved normally and learnt to connect the noise with the need to blink.129 This was a proof of concept that computer implants may one day replace areas of the brain damaged by stroke or other conditions. They could then be considered as a kind of cognitive prostheses, with the aim of restoring cognitive function to persons with brain disorders due to injury or disease.130 Since the hippocampus plays a key role in the recording of memories, they may also assist persons who have suffered brain impairment, such as with Alzheimer’s disease, to recover some function. However, the implant may also be used to enhance healthy brain func- tions if a person believes that this may be necessary for some reason. 131 In this regard, in 2011, the bioengineer Francisco Sepulveda in the United Kingdom This open access edition has been made available under a CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license thanks to the support of Knowledge Unlatched. Not for resale.