Page - 82 - in Cyborg Mind - What Brain–Computer and Mind–Cyberspace Interfaces Mean for Cyberneuroethics

82 • Cyborg Mind have to be done first but I think [implanting chips into human brains] is well within the scope of possibility.’158 But of course, it is always difficult to predict how a market would develop. Interfaces Used in the Military Throughout history, military conflicts have been a major driver of techno- logical developments, especially when these are financed by large defence budgets. One example of this is the already mentioned BrainGate™, which received large sums of money from the U.S. Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). This was to conduct research aimed at increasing the speed, sensitivity and accuracy with which a human combatant might analyse information and respond to threats.159 In 2010, DARPA also awarded a $2.4 million contract to the company called Neuromatters to develop a prototype brain computer interface ‘image triage’ system as part of its Cognitive Technology Threat Warning System research programme.160 The aim was to determine whether noninvasive brain computer interfaces could enhance the ability of military personnel to ana- lyse intelligence data. This included monitoring brain activity when soldiers looked at images in order to detect any patterns that may be associated with recognising a threat.161 The results could then be processed in real time to select images that merit further review in order to accelerate decision- making.162 Similarly, DARPA has funded research on Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation to see if it could be helpful to sharpen soldiers’ minds on the battlefield.163 However, this U.S. Defence Agency has not stopped there, since it has supported research examining whether neuronal interfaces may be used to control remote weaponry directly from the operators’ brain signals.164 This has resulted in a U.S. patent being filed for ‘apparatus for acquiring and transmitting neural signals’ for purposes including, but not limited to, weap- ons or weapon systems, robots or robot systems.165 In this way, the ability to control a machine through the human brain could even make it possible for a soldier to remotely operate robots or unmanned vehicles in hostile territory.166 DARPA has also been interested in finding treatments for injured sol- diers, though some could have spinoffs for defence applications and thereby come under the definition of ‘dual use’ (used for both peaceful and military aims).167 Indeed, DARPA released a number of calls for grant applications in 2013, including the following: – Hand Proprioception and Touch Interfaces (HAPTIX) aiming ‘to create fully implantable, modular and reconfigurable neural-interface This open access edition has been made available under a CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license thanks to the support of Knowledge Unlatched. Not for resale.