Page - 85 - in Cyborg Mind - What Brain–Computer and Mind–Cyberspace Interfaces Mean for Cyberneuroethics

Neuronal Interface Systems • 85 as an improvement in the context of medicine, but the same technology could also be used for other purposes, such as to enhance normal functions. For instance, the development of human vision beyond the range of what is normally visible would not generally be considered as a medical procedure, since this capacity has never previously existed in human beings. Questions can then be asked whether such an enhancement could be considered as ben- eficial for the individual, or for the whole of society, if it were possible, for instance, to make night driving a lot safer. It is also important to consider the personal autonomy of an individual in choosing what risks to take in the context of a societal decision about which enhancement technologies to allow. This implies that if it can be shown that the risks arising from the enhancement are minimal, the burden of proof should generally lie on those who would argue that the enhancement should not be used. In the light of this, an important question relating to enhance- ment technologies is whether it would be possible to prepare guidelines and regulations concerning the kind of technology for which societal approval may be necessary, thereby restricting personal autonomy.185 Risks Related to Noninvasive Neuronal Interfaces It is worth noting that with noninvasive output or input neuronal interface systems, such as EEG, some elements of risk remain. Amongst a number of challenges, this is because of the inherent plasticity of the brain with respect to function or structure as a result of interfaces requiring a highly repetitive use of certain applications. A lot of time may be required for a user to learn how to generate certain brain electrical signals in order to control a device. The performance of a user may also be dependent on how tired he or she feels, as well as any distractions or other external influences.186 However, it should be recognised that in any learning process, such an effort is usually required.187 Risks Relating to Invasive Neuronal Interfaces Ever since it has become possible to implant devices into the nervous systems of individuals, it has been necessary to consider the risks such applications create. Moreover, from the earliest analyses of these risks, it is clear that a consensus about what the unintended risks (or benefits) might be is difficult to find.188 Implanting a device, such as an electrode, into a certain brain area is very likely to have lasting effects. This is because once it becomes integrated into the tissue, its subsequent removal may give rise to serious damage. It is therefore important to consider whether better technologies may be This open access edition has been made available under a CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license thanks to the support of Knowledge Unlatched. Not for resale.