Page - 102 - in Cyborg Mind - What Brain–Computer and Mind–Cyberspace Interfaces Mean for Cyberneuroethics

102 • Cyborg Mind Risks for Individuals Any biomedical or biotechnological intervention generally involves some degree of risk, even if this may be relatively small. But when a treatment for a medical condition is being considered, these risks are generally seen as pro- portionate in light of the benefits. In this respect, the first kind of risks that may arise from neuronal inter- faces may be possible side-effects that should be carefully assessed, since some can be hidden, rare or long-term. Particular side-effects that may be relevant for children and young people should be thoroughly and meticulously exam- ined since their brains are still developing. Indeed, they may benefit in the short term, but very real negative consequences may then appear later in their lives. Furthermore, unintended consequences may exist. For instance, once a benefit is achieved using an interface, there may be increased pressure on the individual to continue using the appliance to maintain the same level of performance, leading to a likely increase in dependency and even addiction. Another possible unintended consequence is that pressures may increase on individuals to be connected all the time, to work harder, longer and more intensively. As a result, it could actually make life even more difficult than before. Thus, the risks of unanticipated negative side-effects may be signifi- cant, making it difficult to provide appropriate information to individuals so that they can make an informed decision. Finally, when an individual considers using a neuronal interface, it may not just be a question of personal autonomy or consent alone that matters, since society may decide to limit informed and competent individuals taking certain risks. This may happen through, for example, setting standards, licensing practitioners and prohibiting procedures that are demonstrably dangerous. Societal Ethics The second level of consideration is related to the prospective risks and advantages to society. Again, an appropriate balancing of these will need to be carefully examined, which may not always be straightforward. Advantages for Society Because all individuals live in society, what may happen on a personal level may affect others in both a positive and a negative manner. This means that any individual use of neuronal interfaces may have an impact on society, for good or for ill. This open access edition has been made available under a CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license thanks to the support of Knowledge Unlatched. Not for resale.