Page - 11 - in Cyborg Mind - What Brain–Computer and Mind–Cyberspace Interfaces Mean for Cyberneuroethics

Why Use the Term ‘Cyberneuroethics’? • 11 The power of this control and communication theory was immense and, over the years, the term ‘cyber’ began to extend to all things representing a combination or interchange between humans and technology. In this way, the term started to evolve in many different settings where interactions were possible with electronic applications. This included everything from cyber- cafés to cyberdogs and from cyberwarfare to cybersex. How far Wiener could see into the future is difficult to say, but it would have been an adventurous mind that could envision the present concept of cyberspace. Cyborg With the concept of cybernetics being defined, as already noted, by Wiener and his colleagues, the term ‘cyborg’ was originally coined, as its close cousin, by the Austrian research scientist Manfred Clynes and the American research physician Nathan Kline (1916–1983) in 1960 as a combination of ‘cyber- netic and organism’. This included an enhanced individual with both human and technological characteristics.7 Thus, any living being which was merged with neuronal interfaces was considered to be a cyborg. In this regard, the notion of humanity being enhanced by technology has stimulated the imagination of the public since the 1920s. The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) television science-fiction drama series Doctor Who, which is one of the oldest in the world, was quick to pick up on the theme when, in 1963, the ‘Daleks’ were conceived. These were genetically modified humanoids from another planet, who had been integrated into a robotic shell while being modified to no longer experience pity, compassion or remorse. From the 1970s onwards, cyborgs became popular in many other films, where they figured as invincible humanoid machines demonstrating no emo- tion. Some were visibly indistinguishable from humans, though others were more mechanical than human, such as with ‘Darth Vader’ from the 1977 film Star Wars created by George Lucas. Other examples are the ‘Cybermen’ intro- duced in the 1966 Doctor Who series. This brand of super-villains was created by degenerating humanoid beings, whose body parts were replaced with plastic and steel as a means of self-preservation. But because their humanoid brains were retained, ‘emotional inhibitors’ had to be inserted so that the new Cybermen could cope with the trauma and distress of their transformation. Yet at the same time, this meant that they could no longer understand the concepts of love, hate and fear. Interestingly, cyborgs are often portrayed in popular culture as represent- ing hybrid figures who overlap boundaries where existing familiar, traditional categories no longer exist. As such, they are often used to create narratives of apprehension about possible future technological developments, while This open access edition has been made available under a CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license thanks to the support of Knowledge Unlatched. Not for resale.