Page - 76 - in Cyborg Mind - What Brain–Computer and Mind–Cyberspace Interfaces Mean for Cyberneuroethics

76 • Cyborg Mind indicated that ‘my bet is that specific, well-organised brain parts such as the hippocampus or the visual cortex will have synthetic correlates before the end of the century’.132 Non-therapeutic Applications of Feedback Neuronal Interfaces Nerve Recording Implants The number of individuals who have made permanent physical connections between their bodies and cybertechnology is relatively small. But one fre- quently cited example is Kevin Warwick, who in 2002 explored the experi- ence of having a set of electrodes attached to one of the nerves in his arm, which was connected to machines either directly or via the web.133 The elec- trode assembly measured 4 mm by 4 mm, but contained a hundred needle electrodes that were just 1.5 mm long. Leading out of the electrode was a long flexible cable connected to externally worn electronics. Warwick and his team monitored the nerve signals being picked up by the electrodes and sent these through a computer to a robotic hand. Over a number of days, Warwick learned how to move his hand in such a way that the signals, picked up by the computer, could make a robotic hand open and close. In addition, it was able to send back information about how much pressure its ‘fingers’ were exerting, but Warwick could best drive the system when watching it in action. He also linked the equipment to a wheelchair and was able to start, stop and move in a desired direction. In another experiment, he travelled to New York, where he linked his implanted device to a web-linked computer and used the signals to drive a robotic hand attached to a computer in the United Kingdom. To an extent, it showed no more than had been achieved in the lab, except that the interface between the two devices was thousands of miles longer.134 However, this did provide a ‘media moment’ when members of society could begin to reflect upon the possible outcomes that could be developed through linking out bodies to cyber-aided technology. There is something distinctly intriguing about seeing a piece of machinery move in one continent when the trigger comes from an individual’s nervous system on another continent. The Use of Neuronal Interfaces in Gaming Most of the gaming neuronal interfaces being developed involve EEG, which records brain activity using electrodes that rest on the scalp or forehead.135 This activity is then analysed and translated into information that is used to control or bring about effects in computer-operated games. EEG is often considered for games because it has high temporal resolution and is noninvasive, while being relatively easy and cheap to use. Interestingly, some serious gaming enthusiasts have suggested that in the future, they This open access edition has been made available under a CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license thanks to the support of Knowledge Unlatched. Not for resale.