Romanik#

Romanesque: architectural and art period in Europe whose beginning varies from region to region and cannot be exactly defined. In Austria, the pre-Romanesque or early Romanesque period may be associated with the French term "premier art roman", which is otherwise mostly used for southern regions. Once the Hungarian invasions had been overcome, a period of economic and cultural prosperity equivalent to that under the Carolingians began under the Babenberg family in the area of what are now Upper and Lower Austria, under the family of the Otokars in Styria, and under the Eppenstein and Sponheim families in Carinthia. Austrian early-Romanesque style prevailed in the 11th century; mature Romanesque developed in the 12th century and was followed by the late Romanesque style, which was increasingly influenced by early Gothic forms. During the Romanesque period, Austria was influenced by different, often contradictory, western and southern architectural and artistic currents. Whereas the Reform of Hirsau had an important impact on Styria, Carinthia and the province of Salzburg, the architectural and artistic styles in Lower and Upper Austria were marked by Cistercian conceptions. An important artistic tradition dating from pre-Romanesque times continued to exist in the province of Salzburg. Local developments over longer periods of time can also be observed in other regions.

The new style was particularly promoted by the dioceses (Salzburg with the dioceses of Gurk, Seckau, Brixen/Bressanone and Passau), and by the monasteries and orders. In religious architecture, the basilica-type church with a nave and two aisles, the central nave rising considerably higher than the side aisles, was extended. The aisles were connected through semicircular arcades, which were supported either by piers ( Ossiach, first half of the 11th century; Gurk, around 1140-1200; Millstatt, around 1060-1088; Geras, after 1150) or by columns ( Seckau, from 1143-1164).

The choirs, usually at the east end of the basilica, mostly have an apse, or semicircular half-domed protrusion of the end wall, to accommodate the altar; they were frequently built over vaulted substructures (crypts) which served liturgical purposes and as burial places. Whereas Goess has the oldest Romanesque crypt dating from the early 11th century (around 1020), Gurk has the most beautiful one (1140-1174, with 100 columns). The western façade of important churches was often dominated by two mighty towers (Gurk, around 1140-1200; Millstatt, around 1060-1088; St. Poelten, consecrated in 1150). Lambach (consecrated in 1089), Nonnberg Abbey in Salzburg (mid-11th century), Brixen/Bressanone (South-Tyrol, second half of the 12th century), and the castle chapel in Oberranna (1st half of the 12th century) originally had a second choir at the west end of the church.

The above-mentioned basilicas originally had naves with flat timber ceilings, which were largely replaced by vaulted ceilings around 1100. Klosterneuburg (1114-1136) and the Cathedral of Salzburg (with a nave and four aisles; begun in 1181, the largest Romanesque building in central Europe at that time) were both vaulted and had a transept and central tower.

The building activities of the Cistercians, who sympathized with the Babenberg family and also maintained direct relations with Burgundy and the French Romanesque, played a particularly important role in Romanesque architecture. The pier-type basilica of Heiligenkreuz (1135-1187) already had rectangular cross-rib vaults - the oldest in Austria. A transitional style between Romanesque and Gothic promoted by the Cistercians prevailed from the early 13th century and found its most beautiful expression in the unique and richly decorated cloisters of Zwettl (around 1210-1230), Heiligenkreuz (around 1220-1250) and Lilienfeld (around 1230). The cathedral of Wiener Neustadt (13th century), St. Stephen´s Cathedral (Heidentuerme and western gallery, consecrated in 1263), Michaelerkirche in Vienna (around 1220-1250), and the Franciscan church in Salzburg (early 13th century) are also marked by this transitional style.

Whereas most Romanesque monastic churches were completely rebuilt (Melk, late 11th century; Goettweig, second half of the 11th century), small parish churches have been relatively well preserved, except for the timber structures. Most of these parish churches have one nave with a semicircular apse or a rectangular chancel with a defensive tower (choir tower; e.g. St. Gertrud in Klosterneuburg, after 1133; St. Marein bei Neumarkt, Styria, late 12th century). There are a few round churches left (e.g. Scheiblingkirchen, Lower Austria, mid-12th century; Petronell, first half of the 12th century). The round or polygonal charnel houses with their subterranean ossuaries are characteristic of Austria, e.g. in Hartberg (second half of the 12th century), Bad Deutsch-Altenburg (mid-13th century), Tulln (mid-13th century), Moedling (mid-13th century), and Pulkau (mid-13th century).

Numerous villages and towns are worth mentioning with regard to their secular buildings, which still determine the present urban fabric of these places (e.g. Enns, around 1100; Wiener Neustadt, around 1200; Bruck an der Leitha, second quarter of the 13th century; Freistadt, around 1240). In some places the Romanesque ring wall with its towers and gates has been preserved, particularly in Friesach (late 13th century) and Hainburg an der Donau; the Wiener Tor (Vienna gate, second half of the 13th century) and Ungartor (Hungarian gate, around 1260) represent two of the most important town gates that have been preserved from the Middle Ages. Castle building was also highly developed in the Romanesque period. Regularly structured moated castles, frequently surrounded by a ditch, dominated in flat areas; near the eastern border these castles were often four-sided with a rectangular courtyard enclosed by three wings and a defensive wall (core of the Hofburg Imperial Palace in Vienna, last third of the 13th century; castle of Wiener Neustadt, second half of the 13th century; Orth, Lower Austria, mid-12th century). In mountainous areas, the most important strategic points were defended by irregularly shaped castles that conformed to the landscape (e.g. Castle Tirolo, South-Tyrol, first half of the 12th century; Hohensalzburg, around 1077; Petersberg in Friesach, around 1077-1130; Seebenstein, late 11th century; Rappottenstein, around 1170; Heidenreichstein, around 1200; Lockenhaus, first half of the 13th century; Guessing, second half of the 12th century). Surrounded by defensive walls, these castles consist of the defensive keep (main tower); the residential tract; and additional buildings. In general, Romanesque buildings are characterized by massive ashlar masonry.

Subordinated to architecture, sculpture in the Romanesque period mainly served for the decoration of churches (outside the church on portals, doorways, façades and apses; inside the church on pillars and columns). Monumental sculpture is particularly beautifully exemplified by the great semicircular relief compositions over church portals, called tympanums, e.g. in Gurk (south portal, around 1150); Millstatt (west portal, around 1170); in the charnel houses in Mistelbach (around 1220/30); in the Franciscan church (around 1220) and Peterskirche (St. Peter´s church; around 1244/45) in Salzburg; and at the west and south gates of the Abbey of St. Paul im Lavanttal (around 1260). A tympanum of the Virgin Mary (around 1220/30; supposedly from the cathedral of Salzburg, exhibited in the Museum Carolino Augusteum in Salzburg) is of particular importance. The richly ornamented portal of St. Stephen´s Cathedral in Vienna (Riesentor, around 1240) is of similar importance, as are the portals of the charnel houses in Tulln (mid-13th century) and Moedling (mid-13th century), which were created in a workshop in Lower Austria. At the same time, a transition from the block-capital to the finely carved bud capital could be observed.

Some scholars doubt the Romanesque origin of the rich decoration of the apse of Schoengrabern (around 1210-30), which is unique in Austria and which they believe might only date from the 16th century.

Apart from various ornamental decorations, figural sculptures of symbolic character are displayed on the façades, apses and transepts of other large churches as well, e.g. in St. Paul im Lavanttal (around 1200-1220). The portal lions, for example, symbolized the power of faith and of the Church, as well as defence from the powers of evil (e.g. Schottenkloster (around 1200) and Peterskirche (St. Peter´s church, second quarter of the 13th century) in Vienna; Kremsmuenster, mid-13th century; Goettweig, around 1180/1200; Admont, around 1200).

Individual reliefs are rare (e.g. in Millstatt, around 1170; parish church of Wolfsberg im Lavanttal, mid-13th century; parish church of Gobelsburg, late 11th century; on the outer south wall of the Klosterneuburg Abbey church, late 12th century; above the portal of the charnel house in Moedling, mid-13th century; parish church of Sollenau, around 1200), as are individual heads (façade of St. Stephen´s Cathedral in Vienna, around 1240; west portal of the parish church in Wels, second half of the 12th century; wall next to the charnel house in Hartberg, first half of the 13th century).

There are also some figural gravestones for bishops, abbots and noblemen (e.g. Duke Heinrich in Heiligenkreuz, around 1230; Bishop Walther of Gurk in Strassburg, Carinthia, around 1200-1213; Otto I in Gurk, d. 1214; an unknown abbot in Viktring, around 1150/55; Duke Friedrich der Streitbare ("the Bold", in Heiligenkreuz, d. 1246).

In addition to stone sculptures, several wood carvings, particularly crucifixes, have survived (displayed in the Salzburg Museum Carolino Augusteum, around 1160; from Ludesch, displayed in the provincial museum of Vorarlberg (Vorarlbergisches Landesmuseum), around 1170; Nonnberg Abbey in Salzburg, around 1160/70; Hoellein near Friesach, around 1170/80; Goess, around 1180). The most ancient work of figural art preserved in Austria dates from the late 11th century: the Crucifixion relief of Ried im Traungau (Upper Austria, exhibited in the provincial museum of Upper Austria (Oberoesterreichisches Landesmuseum)). The great Crucifixion groups of the collegiate church in Seckau have also been preserved (auxiliary figures, second half of the 12th century; the Corpus Christi, originally part of it; what is called the "Gaaler Kruzifix", displayed in the Ferdinandeum in Innsbruck; the Crucifix which now is in Seckau dates from the period around 1200-1220); and the collegiate churches of Innichen und Sonnenburg in South Tyrol. Numerous carved statues of the Virgin Mary (e.g. in the Joanneum in Graz, first half of the 13th century; Stadtmuseum Krems an der Donau, around 1220; Freistadt, mid-13th century; Peterskirche (St. Peter´s church) in Friesach, around 1200); figures of saints are rare (e.g. archbishop of Weitra, Stadtmuseum Krems an der Donau, late 12th century). The reliefs on the door wings of the Cathedral of Gurk (around 1220/30) are among the most important wood carvings. Romanesque sculpture was characterised by manifold influences from Bavaria, the area of Friaul/Friuli and Northern Italy as well as from Southern France and Northern Spain.

Similar influences may be observed in Romanesque painting. Approximately 50 Austrian churches display remains of notable Romanesque frescoes, particularly in Styria and Carinthia; whereas there are numerous fragments of frescoes in Lower Austria, remains of frescoes in Burgenland, Tyrol and Vorarlberg are less important. The most important fresco cycle dating from the 11th century was discovered in Lambach in 1960 (Upper Austria, last third of the 11th century). Remarkable frescoes dating from the 12th and 13th centuries are found in Friesach (Church of the Teutonic Order, mid-12th and mid-13th centuries); Puergg (around 1160-1165); Salzburg (Nonnberg Abbey, mid-12th century); Maria Woerth (Winterkirche, late 11th century); Nauders (St. Leonhard chapel, first half of the 12th century); Mariapfarr (around 1220); and Matrei in East Tyrol (St. Nikolaus, 13th century). In the 13th century the figures became more lively and soulful; early Gothic was initiated by what is called the Zackenstil (e.g. western gallery of the Cathedral of Gurk, 1260/70; bishop´s chapel in Goess, around 1280; Seckau, around 1280; Krems an der Donau, around 1280). Romanesque stained glass and manuscript illumination were as important as mural painting.

In fact, many specimens of Romanesque decorative art have survived and been preserved in Austria. Numerous works of art that had been imported to Austria bear witness to the various cultural and political relations maintained by Austria in the Romanesque period. The famous Verdun Altar, created in 1181 for Klosterneuburg, and the remains of an enamel cross (around 1160, Austrian Museum of Applied Art) bear witness to enamelwork from the region of Lorraine and Meuse. The "Wilten Chalice" (1160/70, Kunsthistorisches Museum); the wheel cross (flabellum) of Kremsmuenster Abbey (around 1170/80), the Vorau portable altar (around 1160/70, Austrian Museum of Applied Art) and a crucifixion panel in Linz (around 1160/70; Oberoesterreichisches Landesmuseum) are products of Lower Saxon goldsmithery. The seven-branched candelabrum of Klosterneuburg Abbey (first half of the 12th century) was produced in Verona. Melk Abbey displays a portable altar from the Lower Rhine Valley (second half of the 11th century); Goettweig Abbey has a Lorrainese candle stick (late 12th century); and Klosterneuburg Abbey displays two reliquaries from Limoges (early 13th century).

In Austrian decorative arts Salzburg was the leading centre of Romanesque Goldsmithery (e.g. chalices and reliquary crosses). Among the most important Austrian objects are a portable altar from Salzburg (late 12th century, Dioezesanmuseum Klagenfurt); the "Zwettl Cross" (early 13th century, collection of the Zwettl Abbey); a folding chair from Salzburg, found at Admont Abbey (first half of the 13th century, now in the Austrian Museum of Applied Art); liturgical vestments (e.g. "Goesser Ornat", between 1239 and 1269, Austrian Museum of Applied Art); crucifixes and iron door mountings.

Literature#