Seite - 50 - in Cyborg Mind - What Brain–Computer and Mind–Cyberspace Interfaces Mean for Cyberneuroethics
Bild der Seite - 50 -
Text der Seite - 50 -
50 • Cyborg Mind
In actual fact, in order to determine what is happening inside a brain, it
was necessary to measure the electrical signals that are present in a neuron
or group of neurons. Historical research in this area dates back to the 1950s,
with the examination of squid neurons, which are exceptionally large and
easy to manipulate. The final aim was to obtain a complete read-out of the
state of a brain by measuring every single electrical signal in every brain
neuron.14
At present, neuronal output interfaces that can be used to analyse brain
functions are very much anticipated by scientists. The aim is for electrical sig-
nals from the brain to be interpreted in order to predict cognitive intentions,
such as performing a movement, meaning that they could eventually replace
any lost connections that a person’s brain has with his or her body or any
other machine. Nonetheless, neuronal interfaces could eventually become
the preferred way for human beings to interact with computers instead of
using keyboards, touchscreens, mice and voice command devices.15
Interfacing out of the brain with output neuronal interface systems can
take place, first of all, though the means of electrodes that can either be situ-
ated on the surface of the skin of the head (noninvasive) or inside the skull
(invasive). The different types of electrodes used result in significant differ-
ences in success rates in terms of making contact with the desired area or
cell type in the brain. Safety concerns also vary depending on which kinds of
electrodes are used or where they are located. For example, surgery is required
with implanted and invasive electrodes, which is associated with a number
of risks.
Another more general and indirect read-out of brain activity can be
obtained through different kinds of scanning procedures. These do not
directly measure the electrical activity of neurons, either individually or in
groups, but rely on the fact that thinking necessitates small amounts of
energy that can be measured in terms of the variation of brain metabolism.
But this still has many limitations and can only be used for some of the most
basic brain activities.16
Invasive Output Neuronal Interface Systems
The first experiments using invasive neuronal interfaces with electrodes
placed inside the brain were undertaken on nonhuman primates, such as
Rhesus monkeys, in the 1970s in the United States.17 From these experi-
ments, a relationship was discovered between the electrical responses in the
brains of these monkeys and the direction in which they moved their arms.18
More recently, experiments using electrode implants in the brains of the same
species of monkeys have been undertaken to associate brain signals with their
use of a mechanical robotic arm. 19
This open access edition has been made available under a CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license thanks to the support of Knowledge Unlatched. Not for resale.
zurück zum
Buch Cyborg Mind - What Brain–Computer and Mind–Cyberspace Interfaces Mean for Cyberneuroethics"
Cyborg Mind
What Brain–Computer and Mind–Cyberspace Interfaces Mean for Cyberneuroethics
- Titel
- Cyborg Mind
- Untertitel
- What Brain–Computer and Mind–Cyberspace Interfaces Mean for Cyberneuroethics
- Autor
- Calum MacKellar
- Verlag
- Berghahn Books
- Datum
- 2019
- Sprache
- englisch
- Lizenz
- CC BY-NC-ND 4.0
- ISBN
- 978-1-78920-015-7
- Abmessungen
- 15.2 x 22.9 cm
- Seiten
- 264
- Schlagwörter
- Singularity, Transhumanism, Body modification, Bioethics
- Kategorie
- Technik
Inhaltsverzeichnis
- Chapter 1. Why Use the Term ‘Cyberneuroethics’? 9
- Chapter 2. Popular Understanding of Neuronal Interfaces 25
- Chapter 3. Presentation of the Brain–Mind Interface 31
- Chapter 4. Neuronal Interface Systems 43
- Developments in Information Technology 44
- Developments in Understanding the Brain 45
- Developments in Neuronal Interfaces 46
- Procedures Involved in Neuronal Interfaces 47
- Output Neuronal Interface Systems: Reading the Brain and Mind 49
- Input Neuronal Interface Systems: Changing the Brain and Mind 57
- Feedback Systems of the Brain and Mind 67
- Ethical Issues Relating to the Technology of Neuronal Interfaces 84
- Chapter 5. Cyberneuroethics 99
- Chapter 6. Neuronal Interfaces and Policy 217
- New Cybercrimes 218
- Policy Concerns 223
- Conclusion 229
- Human Autonomy 232
- Resistance to Such a Development 234
- Risks of Neuronal Interfaces 234
- Appendix. Scottish Council on Human Bioethics Recommendations on
- Cyberneuroethics 239
- Glossary 244
- Index 251