Seite - 56 - in Cyborg Mind - What Brain–Computer and Mind–Cyberspace Interfaces Mean for Cyberneuroethics

56 • Cyborg Mind free flow of ideas about previous events or contemplating the coming day’s activities. It can be an extremely productive time filled with meaningful and creative mental activity. Another advantage of EEG is that the electrodes are readily available and portable, making it far easier to use than other methods. Moreover, since EEG and MEG provide a measure of brain activity that directly reflects the electrical activity of neurons, in contrast to the indirect signals related to blood flow measurements obtained from fMRI and PET, which have a better spatial but worse temporal resolution, they are often used in cooperation. Though EEG does not involve as many risks as more invasive proce- dures, it does have some disadvantages. For instance, muscle contractions in the face or other electrical appliances may interfere with the recording of electrical signals in the brain. Some training is also required for a person to appropriately use the technology and interpret the results.37 Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) is a noninvasive procedure enabling the absorption of light at near-infrared wavelengths to be measured. By apply- ing such a light source and array of detectors to the intact skull of a person, a measurement of how much light is transmitted can be examined. This is especially used with infants who have relatively thin skulls and in combina- tion with other imaging procedures. However, NIRS has a relatively low spatial resolution because of the difficulty in seeking to localise scattered light through a skull and the limited penetration of infrared light into a brain.38 Other Output Systems Other interventions exist enabling a significant amount of information to be gathered from the brain, including the exact position of all the neurons and their interactions, but these cannot be considered as interface systems since they would require the individual to have died. However, because some of them are already being suggested in the very improbable context of mind uploading (which will be considered in a later section), these will now be briefly presented. Light Microscopy Light microscopy has developed quite significantly in the last few decades. Automated systems can now even slice, represent and analyse entire brains from dead mice in a day, generating a considerable amount of useful infor- mation. More advanced systems are capable of creating three-dimensional models of mouse brains that take about a week to prepare. This open access edition has been made available under a CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license thanks to the support of Knowledge Unlatched. Not for resale.