Seite - 71 - in Cyborg Mind - What Brain–Computer and Mind–Cyberspace Interfaces Mean for Cyberneuroethics

Neuronal Interface Systems • 71 by controlling aspects of overall brain activity, which were picked up by two electrodes placed on the side of his scalp that were linked to a basic computer. Typing was not fast, but it gave his mind a means of escape.99 The first electrode-brain chips were also developed with the aim of helping people with paralysed limbs regain some function. For instance, researchers in the United States installed a brain implant in a patient named Johnny Ray (1944–2002), who suffered from ‘locked-in syndrome’ after suffering a brain-stem stroke in 1997. An implant was installed in 1998 and Ray lived long enough to start working with the implant. In 2000, the researchers published a study showing how he could move a cursor on a computer screen by thinking about various movements (initially movements of his hand),100 before going on to move the cursor simply by thinking about doing so. This permitted him to carry out tasks using the computer, including writing.101 However, despite further work, it is still not clear how much brain chips can help ‘locked-in’ patients.102 Yet there is hope that they could eventually offer novel means of communication, independent locomotion and increased control in order to improve the quality of life of these patients.103 Another patient, who was one of the first to use an implanted neuronal interface, was Matt Nagle (1980–2007), who had become tetraplegic after a fight in which a knife wounded his spine. In 2004, he volunteered to receive an invasive implant and became a clinical pioneer in seeking to address the very challenging difficulties of such interfaces.104 Implanted into the area of his motor cortex that controlled arm movement, the 96-pin electrode allowed him to become the first tetraplegic person to control a robotic arm by thinking about moving his hand. Moreover, he was able to control a computer cursor, turn on lights and operate his television.105 Since this trial, electrodes have been tested on other paralysed individuals, allowing them to control the movement of a cursor by simply imagining this motion.106 Further research is also taking place in private companies, such as with BrainGate™, which aims to create interface systems to help severely disabled individuals, including those with traumatic spinal cord injury and loss of limbs, to communicate and control common functions through thought processes.107 Moreover, as progress with neuronal interface systems improves, many more applications will certainly become available with better software, generating more appropriate movements of external devices. What is surprising in this research is that even though many years may have passed after an injury provoked paralysis, normal brain activity for movement remains present in the relevant parts of the brain that can be modulated. The same group of neurons that normally move a limb seem to remain in a person who has become paralysed and these can be used to acti- vate an artificial device.108 This open access edition has been made available under a CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license thanks to the support of Knowledge Unlatched. Not for resale.