Seite - 77 - in Cyborg Mind - What Brain–Computer and Mind–Cyberspace Interfaces Mean for Cyberneuroethics

Neuronal Interface Systems • 77 might be prepared to use other output brain interfaces, such as more invasive and risky implanted electrodes, to enhance their gaming experience.136 Currently available commercial brain–computer interface gaming applica- tions use brain signals in the following ways: – Passive: the output neuronal interface analyses brain signals and inter- prets this information to bring about a change in the game’s environment without the user being in control.137 The brain signals may also be used to monitor the player’s gaming experience so that the game can adjust the level of difficulty.138 – Active: players control what happens in the game, through a feedback system, by either (1) imagining movement whereby the neuronal interface analyses part of the brain associated with movement, or (2) changing their overall state by, for example, shifting from feeling frustrated to calm. Some researchers in the Netherlands even created a game in which changes in a player’s overall state could transform his or her avatar (an icon or figure representing a particular person in cyberspace) on a screen from a bear to an elf.139 – Reactive: the neuronal interface makes use of brain signals from the player associated with event-related reactions by this same player.140 For example, this can happen when the neuronal interface uses signals from the player when he or she recognises significant information. However, a number of challenges remain in the development of neuronal interfaces before they can be considered as a standard form of interaction in games. These include the design and characteristics of EEG headsets and how the brain signals are used.141 Neuronal Interfaces for Pleasure In the 1950s, a U.S. physician, Robert Galbraith Heath, was examining how he could address psychological disorders with far less destructive neurosur- gery. He did this by drilling very small holes in the skulls of his patients and inserting thin metal probes directly into the brain through which pulses of electricity were administered. In doing this, Heath discovered that by activating certain parts of the brain, he could stimulate a rush of pleasure that restrained violent behaviours in some of his patients. Moreover, when they were given control of their own pleasure switch, it was even possible for patients to manage the variation in their moods.142 Similarly, in 2001, it was reported that another U.S. physician, Stuart Meloy, had patented an implant that initiates an orgasm in individuals at the touch of a button. In this regard, Meloy explained that the Orgasmatron uses This open access edition has been made available under a CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license thanks to the support of Knowledge Unlatched. Not for resale.