Seite - 139 - in Cyborg Mind - What Brain–Computer and Mind–Cyberspace Interfaces Mean for Cyberneuroethics

Cyberneuroethics • 139 hardships of real life. It is what gives real human beings real value. This means that, in some circumstances, the ethical appropriateness of escaping reality may be dependent on a number of factors and situations. For instance, the experiences of a person in the imaginary world may have a real impact on the real person. This can have both positive and negative aspects. If a person is violent in the imaginary world, this may enable him or her to calm down in the real world; however, the reverse may also be true. Generally, any violence in the imaginary world may not have any real consequences with respect to responsibility in the real world. But it can also numb the sense of violence in the real world. The more the imaginary world seems real, the more dangerous this world may become. Maybe this is because individuals may no longer be able to discern between the imaginary and the real. For a little boy to kill imaginary enemies may be inoffensive as long as the imaginary element of this game is quite strong  – fictitious films, literature and video games can all be violent. But when real decisions are made (instead of being passive as in the cinema) relating to violent actions that seem very real, this could have a negative psychological impact on an individual. Indeed, the difference between ‘active real’ and ‘active game’ may become blurred for some individuals. Research has confirmed that playing some violent video games is associ- ated with changes in the behaviour of some users. The report by the 2015 American Psychological Association Task Force on Violent Media indicated that: ‘The research demonstrates a consistent relation between violent video game use and increases in aggressive behaviour, aggressive cognitions and aggressive affect, and decreases in prosocial behavior, empathy and sensitivity to aggression.’161 However, there is insufficient evidence as to whether this then leads to criminal violence or delinquency. As the Task Force chair, the American psychologist Mark Appelbaum, explained: ‘Scientists have investigated the use of violent video games for more than two decades but, to date, there is very limited research addressing whether violent video games cause people to commit acts of criminal violence.’162 The report suggested that playing such games may just be one of a number of factors involved in turning someone into an aggressive or violent person, stating that: ‘No single risk factor consistently leads a person to act aggres- sively or violently.’ Adding: ‘Rather, it is the accumulation of risk factors that tends to lead to aggressive or violent behaviour. The research reviewed here demonstrates violent video game use is one such risk factor.’163 In this context, the effects on a player experiencing violent, imaginary and very realistic settings could be similar to those experienced by soldiers coming back from a combat zone in which they have seen real (and not This open access edition has been made available under a CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license thanks to the support of Knowledge Unlatched. Not for resale.